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The Macro-Chronology of Christian and Parachristian Literature: A Comprehensive Analysis of Deuterocanonical, Apocryphal, and Restorationist Scriptures

The formation of the Christian scriptural corpus is not merely a historical record of consensus but a narrative of regional divergence, theological disputes, and the periodic re-emergence of suppressed traditions. While the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) provides the foundational legal and prophetic scaffolding for the faith, the literature produced by various Christian branches and sects after the close of the Hebrew canon reveals the complex evolution of the religion. This evolution spans from the Hellenistic Jewish context of the intertestamental period to the Gnostic movements of the second century, the unique preservation of ancient texts in the Ethiopian highlands, and the modern revelatory claims of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.1

The following analysis provides an exhaustive chronology of these texts, excluding those within the standard Hebrew Tanakh. This document examines the provenance, authorship, and canonical status of these works, ranging from the Deuterocanon of the ancient churches to the specific literature of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Jehovah’s Witnesses.4

The Intertestamental and Second Temple Foundation (Word Image 2805 1 BCE – Word Image 2805 2 CE)

The era preceding the birth of Jesus was characterized by a linguistic and cultural shift among Jews in the Mediterranean, particularly the adoption of Koine Greek. The resulting translation, the Septuagint, included several books that were later designated as “Deuterocanonical” (second canon) by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, though they were ultimately rejected by Rabbinic Judaism and Protestantism.4

Document NameAttributed AuthorComposition/DiscoverySubject MatterCanonical Status
Letter of JeremiahJeremiah (Traditional)Word Image 2805 3BCEA polemic against the vanity of idols and the spiritual dangers of Babylonian exile.4Deuterocanonical in Catholic and Orthodox traditions.4
Psalm Word Image 2805 4DavidWord Image 2805 5 BCEA short, autobiographical poem regarding David’s victory over Goliath and his selection by God.4Canonical for Eastern and Oriental Orthodox; omitted by Rome.4
TobitAnonymousWord Image 2805 6 BCEA narrative of piety, angelology, and the healing of blindness through the guide Raphael.4Deuterocanonical for Catholic and Orthodox; Apocrypha for Protestants.4
Word Image 2805 7 EsdrasAnonymousWord Image 2805 8 BCEAn alternative version of Ezra-Nehemiah focusing on the Feast of Weeks and the Temple.4Canonical in Eastern Orthodox and Ethiopian traditions.4
Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)Yeshua ben SiraWord Image 2805 9 BCEA massive compendium of wisdom, ethics, and social etiquette in the Jerusalemite tradition.4Deuterocanonical in Catholic/Orthodox; widely cited by early Fathers.4
Wisdom of SolomonAnonymous (Alexandrian)Word Image 2805 10BCEA philosophical defense of Jewish faith against Hellenistic skepticism, focusing on immortality.4Deuterocanonical in Catholic/Orthodox; influential on New Testament Logos theology.12
JudithAnonymousWord Image 2805 11 BCEA story of a virtuous widow who beheads the general Holofernes to save her people.4Deuterocanonical for Catholic/Orthodox; rejected by Rabbinic Judaism.7
Word Image 2805 12 MaccabeesJason of CyreneWord Image 2805 13 BCEFocused on religious martyrdom, the afterlife, and prayers for the dead during the Maccabean revolt.4Deuterocanonical for Catholic/Orthodox; rejected by Protestants.4
Word Image 2805 14 MaccabeesAnonymousWord Image 2805 15  BCEA formal historical account of the rise of the Hasmonean dynasty and the Temple cleansing.4Deuterocanonical for Catholic/Orthodox.4
Word Image 2805 16 MaccabeesAnonymousWord Image 2805 17  BCEChronicles the miraculous deliverance of Egyptian Jews from a stampede of intoxicated elephants.4Canonical for Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox.4
Additions to DanielAnonymousWord Image 2805 18 BCEIncludes Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, and the Prayer of Azariah set in the fiery furnace.4Integral part of Daniel in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles.4
Additions to EstherAnonymousWord Image 2805 19 BCEGreek portions that provide a religious and prayerful context to the otherwise secular Hebrew version.4Included in the Catholic and Orthodox canons.3
Prayer of ManassehManasseh (Traditional)Word Image 2805 20 BCE – Word Image 2805 21CEA penitential prayer attributed to the king of Judah during his Assyrian captivity.4Canonical in Eastern Orthodox and Ethiopian Bibles.4

The preservation of these texts suggests an underlying tension between linguistic authority and local usage. In the early church, the use of the Septuagint meant that books like Wisdom and Sirach were as familiar as Isaiah.1 However, the later decision of Jerome to favor the “Hebrew Verity” (the Hebrew texts available in the fourth century) created a distinction between “canonical” and “apocryphal” works that persists today in the Protestant-Catholic divide.7

The Enochic and Jubilean Tradition in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church possesses a unique history of textual preservation, having maintained works in Ge’ez that were entirely lost to Western Christendom for over a millennium. Chief among these are Enoch and Jubilees, which the Ethiopian tradition views as integral to the Old Testament.19

The Book of Enoch (specifically Word Image 2805 22Enoch) is a composite work of apocalyptic visions. The earliest strata, the Book of the Watchers, dates to the third century BCE and details the fall of angels who mated with human women to produce the Nephilim.20 The Astronomical Book and the Parables of Enoch followed, with the latter introducing a “Son of Man” figure that many scholars believe influenced early Christian Christology.20 Though known to early Fathers like Tertullian, the book was condemned in the West by the late fourth century.22 Its complete form survived only in Ethiopia, discovered there by James Bruce in Word Image 2805 23, though Aramaic fragments were later found in the Dead Sea Scrolls inWord Image 2805 24.22

Similarly, the Book of Jubilees (or “Little Genesis”) claims to be a secret revelation given to Moses on Mount Sinai. Written circa Word Image 2805 25BCE, it rewrites the history of the world in cycles of forty-nine years.20 It emphasizes the solar calendar and ritual purity, which aligns with the Essene community at Qumran where fifteen scrolls of the book were discovered.24 For the Ethiopian Church, Jubilees provides essential chronological clarity to the otherwise sparse narratives of Genesis.3

The Apostolic and Proto-Orthodox Era (Word Image 2805 26 CE – Word Image 2805 27CE)

As the first century progressed, the followers of Jesus began to produce their own literature. These works, intended for liturgy, instruction, and defense of the faith, eventually formed the New Testament, though many other works were highly regarded for centuries before being excluded from the formal list.1

The earliest Christian writings were the epistles of Paul, composed between Word Image 2805 28 and Word Image 2805 29 CE. Documents like Word Image 2805 30 Thessalonians (Word Image 2805 31 CE) and Galatians (Word Image 2805 32 CE) addressed immediate pastoral concerns, focusing on the return of Christ and the relationship between Jewish Law and Gentile converts.28 These were followed by the Synoptic Gospels (Mark circa Word Image 2805 33 CE, Matthew and Luke circa Word Image 2805 34 CE), which sought to preserve the oral tradition of Jesus’ life and ministry following the destruction of Jerusalem in Word Image 2805 35 CE.28

The Apostolic Fathers

The term “Apostolic Fathers” refers to a group of authors who were traditionally believed to have known the apostles directly. Their works were so highly esteemed that some, such as Word Image 2805 36Clement and the Shepherd of Hermas, appear in the earliest complete Bibles like the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus.29

  • The Didache (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles): Anonymous but attributed to the apostles, this work dates from as early as Word Image 2805 37 to Word Image 2805 38CE.32 It was rediscovered inWord Image 2805 39 by Philotheos Bryennios in a monastery in Constantinople.32 The text serves as a manual of ecclesiastical discipline, describing the “Two Ways” of life and death, and providing the earliest known instructions for the Trinitarian formula in baptism.33 Its status remained “disputed” (antilegomena) in the fourth century, used for training catechumens but excluded from the final canon.13
  • Word Image 2805 40 Clement: Written by Clement of Rome circa Word Image 2805 41 CE, this letter to the Corinthians was intended to resolve a leadership dispute.13 It is included in the “broader canon” of some Oriental Orthodox traditions and was widely read in the early church as having near-apostolic authority.13
  • The Epistle of Barnabas: Composed circa Word Image 2805 42CE, this work uses extensive allegory to argue that the Old Covenant was superseded by the New.38 Although it appears in the Codex Sinaiticus, it was ultimately rejected due to its late date and its sharp polemic against Jewish observance.13
  • The Shepherd of Hermas: Written in Rome circa Word Image 2805 43
    CE by Hermas, the brother of Pope Pius I.31 An apocalyptic work involving five visions and ten parables, it emphasizes moral purity and the possibility of a single repentance for sins after baptism.13 It remained popular for centuries but was excluded from the canon because it was written “too recently” to be apostolic.31

Divergent Gnostic and Esoteric Literatures (Word Image 2805 44 CE – Word Image 2805 45 CE)

Parallel to the development of the “Great Church” was a flourish of Gnostic movements. These groups believed that material existence was the result of a flawed creator (the Demiurge) and that a hidden, supreme God had sent a redeemer to provide secret knowledge (gnosis) for the liberation of the soul.41

The discovery of the Nag Hammadi library in Word Image 2805 46 in Upper Egypt unearthed fifty-two texts, primarily Gnostic, that had been buried in the mid-fourth century, likely to protect them from episcopal purges.41 These works demonstrate that the early Christian landscape was far more pluralistic than later historical records suggested.1

Gnostic/Apocryphal WorkEstimated DateDiscovery/SourceSubject/Insights
Gospel of ThomasWord Image 2805 47
CE

Nag Hammadi

(Word Image 2805 48)

A collection ofWord Image 2805 49 “sayings” of Jesus focusing on internal enlightenment and the “kingdom within”.41
Gospel of Mary (Magdalene)Word Image 2805 50
CE

Berlin Codex

(Word Image 2805 51)

Mary reveals secret teachings to the apostles; highlights the tension between Mary and Peter.38
Gospel of PhilipWord Image 2805 52
CE

Nag Hammadi

(Word Image 2805 53)

A Valentinian Gnostic work describing five sacraments, including the “Mirrored Chamber”.38
Gospel of JudasWord Image 2805 54
CE

Al-Minya, Egypt

(Word Image 2805 55s)

Depicts Judas as the only disciple who understands Jesus, helping him shed his physical body through betrayal.38
Apocryphon of JohnWord Image 2805 56
CE

Nag Hammadi

(Word Image 2805 57)

A detailed mythological account of the emanation of the divine Pleroma and the fall of Sophia.41
Apocalypse of PeterWord Image 2805 58
CE

Akhmim, Egypt

(Word Image 2805 59)

A graphic description of the punishments in hell and the joys of heaven; rejected as non-apostolic.13
Acts of Paul and TheclaWord Image 2805 60
CE		Asia MinorFollows a virgin, Thecla, who becomes a disciple of Paul and survives multiple martyrdom attempts.13
Infancy Gospel of ThomasWord Image 2805 61
CE		Various FragmentsRecounts the childhood of Jesus (ages
Word Image 2805 62), depicting him as a powerful and sometimes petulant child.38
Gospel of Nicodemus (Acts of Pilate)Word Image 2805 63
CE		Medieval MSSDescribes the trial of Jesus and his “Harrowing of Hell” during the three days in the tomb.38

The exclusion of these works from the canon was driven by the early Church’s emphasis on “Apostolicity” (authorship by an apostle), “Orthodoxy” (alignment with established teaching), and “Catholicity” (usage by the whole church).13 While the Gnostic gospels provided a rich philosophical experience, they often lacked the historical and communal framework required for institutional stability, leading to their ultimate status as “heretical” or “apocryphal”.13

Regional Canon Expansion and Church Orders (Word Image 2805 64 CE – Word Image 2805 65 CE)

As the church became institutionalized, different regions adopted unique “Church Orders”—collections of rules, liturgy, and history that were often bound with scriptural texts. This is most evident in the Ethiopian and Slavic traditions, where the distinction between “Bible” and “Holy Tradition” is more fluid than in the West.2

The Ethiopian Broader Canon

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church identifies an “81-book” canon, but this number is reached through two different ways of counting.3 The “broader canon” includes eight additional books of “Church Order” that are unique to this tradition.21

  • The Sinodos (Four Books): This collection is attributed to the apostles and contains Word Image 2805 66 canons for the church in Zion (Ser’ata Seyon), Word Image 2805 67canons for instructions (Te’ezaz), Word Image 2805 68 canons for the clergy (Gessew), and Word Image 2805 69
    canons for the hierarchy (Abtelis).21 These works are considered the primary source for the Fetha Negest (Law of the Kings), the historical legal code of Ethiopia.25
  • The Books of Covenant (Mäshafä Kidan): Two books, the first containing Word Image 2805 70 chapters on liturgical order and the second containing a discourse of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee after the resurrection.21
  • Ethiopic Clement (Qälëmentos): A seven-part work communicated by Peter to Clement, covering the mysteries of the universe and the conduct of the faithful.21
  • Ethiopic Didascalia (Didesqelya): A manual of church order in
    Word Image 2805 71 chapters, similar to but distinct from the Syrian Apostolic Constitutions.3

Furthermore, the Ethiopian Old Testament includes the Three Books of Meqabyan (Word Image 2805 72 and Word Image 2805 73 Ethiopian Maccabees). Unlike the Greek books of the same name, these texts follow a Benjaminite named Meqabis and his sons, who were martyred by an idol-worshipping king of Media named Tsirutsaydan.15 These books emphasize the physical resurrection of the body and have a purely Ge’ez origin, lacking the Hasmonean history of the Greek Maccabees.15

The Slavic and Greek Distinctions

In the Eastern Orthodox world, the canon is primarily based on the Septuagint, but specific national churches have adopted additional books into their Bibles. The Russian Orthodox Bible, for example, includes Word Image 2805 74 Esdras (also known as Word Image 2805 75 Esdras in the Slavonic numbering or Word Image 2805 76 Ezra in the Latin).45 This book, a Jewish apocalypse from the late first century with Christian additions (Chapters Word Image 2805 77
andWord Image 2805 78), deals with the problem of suffering and the delay of the end times.4 While the Greek Orthodox Church considers it inspired, they do not typically print it in their Bibles, reflecting a principle of “flexibility” in Orthodox tradition.45

The Restorationist Canon: Latter-day Saint Scriptures (Word Image 2805 79– Word Image 2805 80)

In the early nineteenth century, the “Second Great Awakening” in the United States provided the backdrop for the claims of Joseph Smith, who asserted that the Christian church had fallen into a “Great Apostasy” and that he was called to restore the original gospel through new scripture.5

The Book of Mormon

On September Word Image 2805 81, Joseph Smith claimed to be visited by an angel named Moroni, who told him of a record written on gold plates buried in a hill near Manchester, New York.52 Smith allegedly retrieved the plates on September Word Image 2805 82, and published the translation in March Word Image 2805 83.52

The Book of Mormon is described as a history of ancient inhabitants of the Americas, primarily the Nephites and Lamanites, who were descendants of a Jerusalemite family that migrated circa Word Image 2805 84 BCE.52 Its theological apex is the account of the resurrected Jesus visiting the Americas to establish his church among these “other sheep”.52 It became the second “Standard Work” of the church, alongside the Bible.5

The Doctrine and Covenants

Unlike the narrative format of the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants is a collection of modern revelations received by Joseph Smith and his successors.5 First published as the Book of Commandments in Word Image 2805 85 (interrupted by mob violence) and then as the Doctrine and Covenants in Word Image 2805 86, it contains Word Image 2805 87 sections in its first edition, detailing church organization, the “Law of Tithing,” and the “Word of Wisdom”.5 It is viewed as the “open” part of the canon, allowing for additional revelations to be added by the prophet-president of the church.5

The Pearl of Great Price

This collection includes several diverse works that were eventually canonized in October Word Image 2805 88.57

  • Book of Moses: An inspired expansion of the first chapters of Genesis received by Smith between June Word Image 2805 89 and February Word Image 2805 90.57 It details the “Visions of Moses” and the history of Enoch, including the establishment of the City of Zion.58
  • Book of Abraham: Smith purchased several Egyptian papyri from a traveling mummy exhibition on July Word Image 2805 91.61 He claimed to translate from these rolls a record written by Abraham during his stay in Egypt.61 It contains doctrines unique to Mormonism, such as the organization of pre-existing matter (ex materia) and a plurality of gods planning the creation.61 In Word Image 2805 92, fragments of these papyri were found in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and identified as common funerary texts (e.g., the Breathing Permit of Hôr), leading to significant debate over the “translation” method used by Smith.61
  • Joseph Smith—History: An official account of the “First Vision” and the early days of the restoration, prepared inWord Image 2805 93.58
  • The Articles of Faith: Thirteen statements of belief originally written by Smith inWord Image 2805 94 as part of the “Wentworth Letter” to summarize church doctrine for a newspaper.58

The Scriptural Literature of Jehovah’s Witnesses (Word Image 2805 95 – Present)

Jehovah’s Witnesses (originally known as “Bible Students”) emerged from the Adventist milieu of the Word Image 2805 96s under the leadership of Charles Taze Russell.64 Their relationship with scripture is defined by two main pillars: a unique translation of the Bible and a massive, authoritative body of interpretive literature that is viewed as “spiritual food” at the “proper time”.6

The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT)

Before Word Image 2805 97, Jehovah’s Witnesses primarily used the King James Version, but they were concerned about its “archaic language” and perceived trinitarian bias.6 A committee of “anointed” members was formed in Word Image 2805 98 to produce a “fresh translation”.6

The New World Translation is characterized by its literalism and its restoration of the name “Jehovah” into the New Testament text Word Image 2805 99 times, despite the name not appearing in any extant Greek manuscripts.6 Specific verses are rendered to support their anti-trinitarian theology: for example, John Word Image 2805 100 is translated as “and the Word was a god,” and Colossians Word Image 2805 101 adds the word “other” (“all other things were created”) to suggest Jesus was a created being.65 It also avoids traditional terms like “cross” (using “torture stake”) and “soul” (using “being” or “person”).67

Key Publication Chronology

Jehovah’s Witnesses do not treat their books as “scripture” in the formal sense, but they are viewed as the only authoritative channel for understanding God’s word.64

Publication TitleDateSubject/Impact
Zion’s Watch TowerWord Image 2805 102The foundational magazine for interpreting Bible prophecy.65
Studies in the ScripturesWord Image 2805 103A Word Image 2805 104-volume series by Russell explaining the “Divine Plan of the Ages”.65
The Finished MysteryWord Image 2805 105The controversial
Word Image 2805 106th volume of the Studies that led to a schism in the group.68
The Truth That Leads to Eternal LifeWord Image 2805 107A primary study aid used to convert millions; emphasized the Word Image 2805 108 date expectations.68
Reasoning from the ScripturesWord Image 2805 109A topical handbook for door-to-door ministry and defending doctrines.68
What Does the Bible Really Teach?Word Image 2805 110The standard study manual replaced the older “Knowledge” and “Truth” books.68

The history of these publications demonstrates a belief in “Progressive Revelation,” where old doctrines (such as the importance of pyramids in Bible chronology) are discarded as “new light” is revealed by the Governing Body.65

Synthesis: The Architectural Fluidity of the Christian Canon

The chronological analysis of these texts suggests that the “Christian Bible” is not a singular, universally agreed-upon volume, but a regional and sectarian construct. The process of canonization was a series of choices influenced by linguistic heritage, political geography, and the struggle against heresy.1

The intertestamental Jewish works like Tobit and Maccabees represent the bridge between Judaism and Christianity, preserved by Rome and Constantinople but abandoned by the Reformers who sought to return to a perceived Hebrew original.4 The unique survival of Enoch and Jubilees in Ethiopia serves as a testament to the diversity of the early church before the consolidation of imperial authority in the fourth century.1

The re-emergence of Gnostic and apocryphal literature in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has challenged the finality of the canon, reminding modern readers of the vibrant, sometimes chaotic origins of the faith.38 Simultaneously, the creation of new canons in the LDS and Jehovah’s Witness traditions reflects a continuing desire for “Restoration”—the belief that the primitive church can and should be recovered through new records and updated translations.6

Ultimately, the chronology of these documents reveals that the boundary between “Inspired Scripture” and “Instructive Literature” is often determined more by ecclesiastical boundaries than by the dates of the texts themselves. For the historian, every book—whether the Didache, the Book of Mormon, or the Watchtower—is an essential artifact in the 2,000-year effort to document and define the Christian experience.1

Works cited

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